Exploring the adoption of water quality trading as an alternative stormwater regulatory compliance strategy for land development projects: A case study for Roanoke, Virginia.

Urban stormwater runoff is a significant source of nutrient pollution that is very costly to treat. Water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based strategy that can be used to lower the costs associated with meeting stormwater quality regulations. While many WQT programs have experienced low participation, Virginia's program has seen high participation due to the inclusion of land developers and other regulated stormwater dischargers. However, the extent to which WQT is used as a compliance option by regulated stormwater dischargers is not well understood, particularly when compared with the adoption of traditional compliance options. To address this knowledge gap, we collated a novel dataset comprising site characteristics and stormwater compliance methods for all development projects in the City of Roanoke, Virginia from December 2015 to March 2022. We analyzed this dataset to characterize the adoption of nutrient offset credits and other compliance methods being used, including best management practices (BMPs) and improved land covers associated with reduced nutrient export. Results show that credits are the preferred compliance option in Roanoke and were used as the only treatment compliance method for 59% of projects with treatment requirements. Projects using credits corresponded with a lower median disturbed area (1.36 acres) and lower median nutrient load reduction requirement (0.69 pounds of total phosphorus per year) compared with other compliance methods. Furthermore, we found that 58% of the projects that used credits achieved stormwater quantity compliance using methods other than implementing stormwater control devices. By mapping buyers and sellers of credits, we found that all credit sellers are downstream of the development projects. We discuss how this downstream trading could be a cause for concern, as part of a larger discussion of the advantages of tracking stormwater compliance methods, drawing on Roanoke as a case study.

Purification, characterization, and cloning of a novel pro-inflammatory secreted protein from Staphylococcus aureus.

IMPORTANCE: Staphylococcus aureus causes a myriad of human diseases, ranging from relatively mild soft tissue infections to highly fatal pneumonia, sepsis, and toxic shock syndrome. The organisms primarily cause diseases across mucosal and skin barriers. In order to facilitate penetration of barriers, S. aureus causes harmful inflammation by inducing chemokines from epithelial cells. We report the cloning and characterization of a novel secreted S. aureus protein that induces chemokine production from epithelial cells as its major demonstrable function. This secreted protein possibly helps S. aureus and its secreted proteins to penetrate host barriers.

Assessing and improving the outcomes of nonpoint source water quality trading policies in urban areas: A case study in Virginia.

Nonpoint source (NPS) water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based approach to improving water quality. Past work has shown that these programs could increase localized pollutant loadings, in part by exporting water quality controls from urban to rural areas. Virginia's NPS WQT program has enabled thousands of transactions and may provide a model for other programs, but its impacts on urban water quality have not been thoroughly assessed. We quantify the impact of NPS WQT purchases in Virginia on water quality and hydrology in an urban catchment. We go on to assess outcomes of a policy alternative where buyers and sellers are collocated in the urban catchment. Simulation results show that NPS WQT increased total phosphorus (TP) loading by an average of 0.8 lbs TP/year for each 1.0 offsite credits purchased in the analyzed catchment. The TP loading increased in years with greater rainfall, such that TP loads were increased by up to 1.2 lbs TP/year for each offsite credit purchased. These loading increases may or may not be acceptable, depending on the cumulative number of purchases within an urban catchment and existing local water quality issues. In our policy alternative with buyers and sellers collocated in the catchment, we found that the TP increase from development was completely offset at the catchment scale, with a decrease of 4.3 lbs TP/year for each 1.0 credits purchased. This suggests that credits awarded for urban mitigation practices are undervalued compared with water quality requirements for credit purchasers. This undervaluation is a result of the Virginia trading program using one approach to compute the credit value for buyers and a different approach to compute the credit value for sellers. We demonstrate how using a single model to determine both buyer and seller credit values in urban areas could provide greater transparency and mitigate the risk of urban pollution hot spots. This work demonstrates the importance of consistency in the scale of pollutant load calculations between buyers and sellers for NPS WQT, and contributes novel insight into the implications of WQT for urban NPS pollution.

Nonpoint Source Water Quality Trading outcomes: Landscape-scale patterns and integration with watershed management priorities.

Nonpoint source (NPS) water quality trading (WQT) has been lauded as a way to reduce water pollution while mitigating costs, but NPS WQT programs often do not account for cumulative landscape-scale impacts to hydrological and ecological processes. In this work, we parameterize the landscape-scale patterns of an emerging NPS WQT market in Virginia (n = 606 transactions) and describe potential tradeoffs and synergies. We also examine program outcomes in the context of Virginia's spatially-explicit conservation and restoration priorities, and discuss ways in which NPS WQT integrates or fails to integrate with these state-level watershed management goals. These spatial and policy analyses demonstrate novel ways to evaluate NPS WQT programs. Our results reveal how NPS WQT has influenced Virginia land management patterns in practice. Specifically, we show that this program has encouraged the transfer of water quality Best Management Practices (BMPs) from urban to rural areas. Impact sites are often far from mitigation sites, at an average of 164.6 km apart measured along the stream network and most often migrated outside the 8-digit Hydrologic Unit Code watershed boundaries. We also find opportunity for improved integration with the state-level management priorities, including that an estimated 22% of the NPS WQT mitigation site area works against state priorities (for example by converting prime farmland to forest), 9% supports state priorities, and 69% neither negates nor supports state priorities. We suggest policy and management actions that can increase the integration of NPS WQT with statewide watershed management goals, and could ultimately improve environmental returns from this fast-growing program.